Audrey Watters' book, Teaching Machine, explores how educational technologies have transformed learning over the years. Watters starts her book as follows,
"For teachers... for human teachers, not teaching machines."
This is a book for educators, parents, technologists and students to critically think about what education should mean in the era of abundant technologies.
From the early teaching machines to today’s advanced digital platforms and AI-fueled devices, she provides an insightful look into how these innovations have shaped teaching methods. This narrative not only highlights the evolution of educational tools but also invites educators and technologists to reflect on their implications for students and the learning landscape.
Here are some of my notes (+quotes) that I'd like to keep.
The Concept of the Teaching Machine
In Teaching Machine, Watters discusses the foundational concept of the teaching machine, which was envisioned by Sydney Pressey with his mechanized positive-reinforcement provider in the 1910s and further promoted by B.F. Skinner with his behaviorist bell-ringing box in the 1950s. This innovative device aimed to 1. automate instruction, 2. offer immediate feedback to learners and 3. reduce the workload of the teachers from grading. The key thought was that these machines could enhance education by personalizing learning experiences for individuals.
Historical Context and Evolution
The teaching machine made by B.F. Skinner in the 1950s was, to a certain extent, built on Ivan Pavlov's research on dogs in 1897, who won the Novbel Prize in Medicine for this research (p.21). Pavlov's research conditioned the animals to respond to a bell by salivating, thus, resulting behavior modification. Although B.F. Skinner argued that what Pavlov does is "classcial conditioning" and what he does is "operant conditioning," Skinner's work is essentially rooted in his philosophy of radical behaviorism, a technology of behavior (p.23).
The teaching machine aimed to eliminate traditional classroom barriers, allowing students to move at their own pace. Proponents of the teaching machine often problematized the arrangements of classrooms and specifically approached the educational problems with a lens of behavioral psychology (p.25).
Sydney Pressey spent years trying to commercialize his mechanized teaching machine but failed due to the economic downturn (schools' reducing their appropriation). At the expense of his health and his marriage, he continued to work on his teaching machine, firmly believing that this would be a sensation when launched in the market. Yet, Pressey's plans for the mass production of the Automatic Teacher fantastically failed. Watters writes, "For the new field of education psychology and its related business of education technology, there would be no turning back from this work" (p.60).
Mechanical Education Wanted
Watters places the teaching machine within a broader historical framework, tracing the development of educational technology. Watters argues that figures like Ben D. Wood, an educational psychologist, and female student of B.F. Skinner, Susan Meyer Markle were ommitted from the history of educational technology because the former did not match up the reputation and social capitals that B.F. Skinner had (Harvard professor) and the latter being a woman. Watters demonstrates that Susan Meyer Markle, a student of B.F. Skinner, in fact, played an important part in programming of the teaching machine.
While much of Ben Wood's work was for admissions and examinations at Columbia, he was involved in projects to develop mass-tests for other organizations (state-wode basis) (p.70-71).
Ben D. Wood and Frank Freeman released their typewriter experiment results stating that the typewrier, in fact, helped students' reading habits and increased the amount they wrote. This kind of narrative is well reflected in the modern day EdTech businesses as well that their EdTech devices and products increases student engagement and that students actually "like" working with these devices.
Edison's famous quote (1922) - motion pictures will replace textbooks eventually. It was never realized because we are still using textbooks in schools.
Nonetheless, what is notable is the imaginations that the postwar America held regarding education: one that is mechanized by machinery (p.69).
IBM hired a Michigan high school teacher Johnson who made a test-scoring machine "Markograph" to commercialize the IBM model 805, which was unveiled in 1938 (p.78). Johnson was hired by IBM because Ben Wood highly praised him and convinced IBM to work with him to complete their educational machinery. While Ben Wood was in pursuit of educational instruction machinery, he was much inspired by John Dewey's work and wrote to him "I find that the child is still nneither the starting point, nor the center, nor the end of our educational organization. So far as my observation goes, this is true even in the so-called progressive schools to some extent at least, since all of them start with a predetermined curriculum, and most, if not all of them, seek to apply one uniform standard of achievement" (p.68).
Although it was not a huge success, this story demonstrates how "mechanical education" - individualized education - was to be achieved through large-scale data analysis and testing machines" (p. 79).
The Future of Educational Technologies
Looking ahead, Watters encourages us to explore the next waves of educational technology, such as virtual reality and adaptive learning systems. These tools promise immersive and personalized learning experiences, but their long-term impact remains to be seen.
Educators must think critically about integrating new technologies into their classrooms. The focus should be on understanding their principles and potential impacts, not just applying the latest gadgets. Our ultimate goal should be to foster critical thinking and creativity, enabling students to thrive in a technology-driven world.
Engaging with the Community
One major takeaway from Watters’ Teaching Machine is the importance of building an engaged educational community. This community must comprise educators, learners, technologists, and policymakers working together to shape the future of educational technology. Collaboration among these groups can lead to better decisions about which technologies to adopt and how to implement them effectively.
Additionally, education is not a one-size-fits-all approach. Embracing different learning experiences and the technologies that facilitate them can yield richer educational outcomes. Educators should stay curious and adaptable, regularly evaluating their teaching methods as new tools are developed.
Embracing the Future of Learning
Audrey Watters' Teaching Machine serves as a powerful examination of the history and implications of educational technologies. By tracing the journey from early teaching machines, Watters gives essential insights to educators and technologists alike.
Understanding the past provides a foundation for informed discussions about the future of education technology. As we navigate a rapidly evolving educational landscape, engaging thoughtfully and inclusively is crucial. This ensures that technological advancements enrich learning experiences for all students.
Ultimately, Teaching Machine encourages readers to reflect on the purpose of education and the technologies we choose. It is not just about machines; it is about our ongoing quest for knowledge, understanding, and empowerment in the classroom.
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